2,4–6 Although the preponderance of literature ties glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) to cytokine production by activation of TLR4,7,8 actually, as a critical element downstream element of the phosphoinositide 3 kinase (PI3K)/Akt pathway, GSK-3β promotes mitochondria-mediated apoptotic signalling by a broad range of insults.9–13 The GSK-3β is constitutively active whereas phosphorylation of GSK-3β at the Selleckchem RAD001 regulatory serine residue of position 9 causes

its inactivation and turns off downstream effectors.14 Homeostasis of phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of GSK-3β is temporally and spatially controlled in mammalian cells to avoid detrimental responses.15,16 Numerous negative regulators leading to loss of GSK-3β activity, function to inhibit GSK-3β-dependent apoptosis. However, there is still little work focusing on the roles of GSK-3β in the TLR-mediated apoptotic signalling pathway. β-Arrestin 2, as a scaffold protein, has been traditionally associated with termination of G protein coupled receptor signalling.17 As a result of the identification of new β-arrestin-interacting partners, more novel roles of β-arrestin

2 have been exploited. The interaction of β-arrestin 2 with its signalling partners usually modulates phosphorylation, ubiquitination and/or subcellular distribution of see more the binding molecules.18 Recruitment of β-arrestin 2 to multiple downstream effectors of the TLR4 signalling pathway negatively regulates the activation of NF-κB and activator protein 1.18–21 Accumulating evidence suggests that β-arrestins function in the anti-apoptotic pathway by impacting the activity of interacted kinases.22–24 In the case of neurokinin-1 receptor, β-arrestin forms a complex with the internalized receptor, src, and extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2, thereby facilitating proliferative and anti-apoptotic effects following substance p stimulation.24 In the

current study we sought to investigate a possible role of GSK-3β in TLR4-mediated apoptotic signalling and attempted to clarify the underlying mechanism by which TLR4 impairs the cell survival pathway. We established the non-infectious injury cell model through serum deprivation (SD) to determine if and how TLR4 participates in the apoptotic signalling and provided insight into the detrimental effects Protein tyrosine phosphatase of TLR4 on SD-induced apoptosis. Our studies reveal that GSK-3β-dependent apoptosis is aggravated in the existence of TLR4. Furthermore, β-arrestin 2 acts as a defender against apoptotic signalling through alteration of GSK-3β phosphorylation. Total/phospho-GSK-3β (serine 9), total/phospho-Akt (serine 473), pro-/cleaved-caspase-3 antibodies were purchased from Cell Signal Technology (Beverly, MA). Anti-β-arrestin 2 was obtained from Santa Cruz (Santa Cruz, CA) and the GSK-3β inhibitor SB216763 and the PI3K inhibitor LY294003 were obtained from Tocris Bioscience (Bristol, UK).