The total area of exposed root (CEJ-bone crest) surfaces stained in blue (the crown enamel is not stained) on the images was measured by an examiner blind to experimental groups using software Image tool 3.0. An increase on the area of exposed roots in comparison to control, non-ligated, teeth indicates alveolar bone resorption. Tissue blocks were fixed in 4% buffered formalin for 48 h, decalcified in EDTA (0.5 M, pH 8.0) for 3 months at room temperature and embedded in paraffin. Semi-serial 5 μm sections were obtained in the frontal plane (buccal–lingual orientation), and stained Dabrafenib order with hematoxylin and eosin (H/E). Three different sections, spaced 300 μm apart, representing

the mesial, mid and

distal areas of the teeth were examined from each specimen and images were captured using a digital camera (Leica DFC 300 FX) on an optical microscope (Diastar-Cambridge Instruments) under 200× magnification. A 32400 μm2 grid with 9 × 4 squares of 30 μm was constructed using an image managing/editor software (Adobe Photoshop CS5) and overlayed Protein Tyrosine Kinase inhibitor on the digital images obtained from the histological sections. The region of interest for the analysis was represented by the whole grid, which was positioned in a submarginal area of the buccal and lingual surfaces, representing the connective tissue subjacent to the gingival sulcus (the apical border of the junctional epithelium and tooth structure were used as upper and lateral limits of the grid, respectively). A single examiner, who was previously trained and calibrated (data not shown) and blind to the purpose of click here the experiment, performed the stereometric analysis using a point-counting technique. The following structures observed on each intersection point of the grid were recorded: fibroblastic cells,

extracellular matrix, vascular structures and inflammatory cells. This procedure allows the quantitative assessment of inflammatory reaction in the vicinity of the aggression. For each specimen, the values obtained from the measurements from each surfaces were combined and averages and standard deviations were calculated. The presence of each structure was expressed as a percentage of the total area analyzed in accordance with Odze et al.14 Total RNA was extracted from tissue samples using RNAqueous 4PCR kit, according to the manufacturer’s protocol (Ambion). The quantity and purity of total RNA were determined on a Biomate 3 (Thermo Electron Corporation) spectrophotometer by evaluating the absorbance at 260 nm and the 260/280 nm ratio, respectively. The integrity of total RNA was confirmed by electrophoresis of 0.5 μg of total RNA in 1% formaldehyde–agarose gels, followed by visualisation of the bands corresponding to 18S and 28S ribosomal RNA in the appropriate ratio (1:2) under UV transillumination.

Without any assumption on which of these parameters is the most influential on wave runup, a characteristic length

parameter find protocol L∗L∗ can be introduced for the dimensional analysis. As three dependent potential energies can be considered (i.e., EPEP, EP+, EP-), a characteristic energy E∗E∗ is also introduced. The functional relationship between the independent variables L∗L∗, E∗E∗, ββ, ρρ, and g  , can be expressed as: equation(13) R=f(L∗,E∗,ρ,g).R=f(L∗,E∗,ρ,g).The beach slope parameter is a dimensionless quantity (and an invariant in the present experiments), therefore not included in (13). The Buckingham Pi theorem (Hughes, 1993) was applied to (13) and out of this analysis (see Charvet, 2012) two dimensionless groups, Π1Π1 and Π2Π2, were formed: equation(14a,b) Π1=RL∗,Π2=(L∗)4ρgE∗.The characteristic length scale L∗L∗ may be the flume width (ww), wave amplitude (a   or a-a-), height (HH), wavelength (LL), or water depth (hh). As the present experiments were carried out in two dimensions, w   can be taken as a unit width so the following equation applies here

to a number of combinations of three possible variables for L∗L∗. The functional relationship between the two groups can be expressed as: equation(15) RL∗=ΨL∗3ρgE∗.By plotting Π1Π1 against Π2Π2 for a sample of simple combinations of L∗L∗, we can see that the data Selleck Enzalutamide is best described by a power law ( Fig. 9). All the data was used in these graphs. The cases where the correlation was poor were discarded. Therefore, we infer the functional relationship to be of the form: equation(16) RL∗=KL∗3ρgE∗k,where K and k are coefficients empirically determined from the dataset. Regression analysis is necessary to identify

the forms of (16) that can give a satisfactory fit to the data by optimizing values of K and k. Moreover, the scatter plots in Fig. 9 show that a significant proportion of the data tends to be clustered for large values of the predictor variable, which confirms the need for it to be partitioned into different wave categories. The uncertainty associated with (16) is quantified using a regression analysis. Linear regression can be performed using the variables in (16) by writing it as: equation(17) logRL∗=logK+klogL∗3ρgE+ε.It is necessary to find the best estimates (i.e., unbiaised) for the PFKL regression coefficients of the model, thus minimize the uncertainty associated with the prediction. To do so, the total error between the response data and the predicted response is reduced (as described in Appendix B) and the non-violation of the relevant statistical assumptions is checked. More details on regression analysis methods can be found in Chatterjee and Hadi (2006). To capture potential differences in runup regime between long waves, very long waves, elevated waves and N-waves, the wave data is divided into different populations.

, 2005). In addition, Machera et al. showed delayed ossification of the skull bones and cleft palate in rat embryos exposed during gestation to CYP (Machera, 1995). X. laevis studies showed also craniofacial malformations in embryos exposed to triazoles; mainly branchial

arch malformations were found after exposure to TDF, which precedes craniofacial defects ( Groppelli et al., 2005 and Papis et al., 2006). Similar defects were also found in rat embryos exposed to FLU ( Menegola et al., 2001). It can be concluded that in the ZET all tested triazoles, except TTC, showed teratogenic effects of a comparable nature, although at different doses, indicative of differences in potency. In addition, the potency ranking appeared very favorably comparable INCB024360 chemical structure to the in vivo potencies, especially when considering that the correlation was based on toxicodynamics check details only.

As stated before, the teratogenic effects found in one class of chemicals appeared very similar between the compounds in that class. Moreover, as shown in Fig. 3, the effects found in glycol ether exposed zebrafish embryos were very different from the effects observed in zebrafish embryos exposed to the triazoles. This is indicative of different mechanisms of embryotoxic action between these classes. For instance, MAA appears to have an endocrine disruptive effect; it potentiates the ligand-dependent activity of multiple nuclear receptors by targeting a common pathway in nuclear receptor-mediated signaling (Henley and Korach, 2006). The triazoles are thought to inhibit the cytochrome

P450 isoenzyme CYP26 (Menegola et al., 2006). In early development of zebrafish these enzymes are already present (Dobbs-McAuliffe et al., 2004 and Gu et al., 2005). It is possible that in the zebrafish embryo the different mechanisms of action of these classes of compounds may lead to different patterns of malformations. Thus, in addition to embryotoxic potency determination, the ZET allows the identification of specific malformation patterns that may be used to further elucidate mechanisms of embryotoxicity. Amine dehydrogenase The wealth of transgenic zebrafish models in addition to siRNA, morpholino and transciptomics approaches currently being developed adds to the elaborate toolbox available for the study of embryotoxicity in the zebrafish embryo model (Bill et al., 2009, Hill et al., 2005, Nasevicius and Ekker, 2000, Weil et al., 2009, Yang et al., 2007 and Yang et al., 2009), and could be employed in combination with the GMS. In this study, the category approach was applied, which assumes that a series of compounds with similar structure will show coherent trends in their toxicological effects, generally associated with a common mechanism of action (Hefter et al., 1999 and OECD, 2007). If the in vitro ranking of the compounds within a class corresponds to the in vivo ranking there is a high likelihood that embryotoxicity of new compounds within the same class can be reliably predicted with the test system.

The longest linkage groups were B06 (212 cM) and B09 (204.6 cM), while the shortest check details were B08 (104 cM) and B03 (109.5 cM). Chi-squared tests for an even distribution of marker types across all linkage groups were also used to show that BMr (P ≤ 0.0001) and RFLP-RGH (P ≤ 0.0000) markers were especially unevenly distributed. The largest numbers of BMr markers were concentrated on linkage groups B01 and B06 (> 10 each) and also on B04 (8 markers) and B11

(7 markers). The linkage groups containing RGH-RFLPs were B10 (6 markers), B08 (4 markers), and B04 and B11 (1 marker each). The total number of markers varied from 15 (for B08) to 34 (for B02) with large numbers of markers also on B01 and B06 owing to the mapping of new BMr markers. Interestingly, although 18 loci were mapped as RGH-RFLPs

[34], some of these were dominant bands and did not map in this study owing to low LOD scores; in particular, RGH4A, RGH4C, RGH5a, and RGH5b on linkage groups B01, B02, and B03 could not be confirmed. The other 14 RGH-RFLP did map to the correct locations and were closely linked to other BMr markers, including RGH4B, which mapped to the predicted position on linkage group B07. There were several major achievements of this study. First, we developed a reduced probe set for screening the G19833 common bean BAC library for RGH-like sequences. Of the 403 different RGH sequences identified by Garzón Selleck Bleomycin et al. [26], a total of 86 were developed as probes (38 TIR and 48 non-TIR). Most of these probes were NBS domains that were uninterrupted; however, pseudogenes were included in our probes, since they can result from rapid evolution and recombination in R-gene clusters [35], creating many adjacent paralogous sequences [36] that are reservoirs of variation [37]. Indeed, proper probe design was found to be an important factor for successful hybridization.

In this study the primer pairs, designed for probe hybridization with the bean BAC library, had GC content of around 43% and average length of 22 bp, properties that were important for amplification of true R-gene homologues. Melting temperatures of forward and reverse primers were close to 60 °C. Expected product sizes, according to 4-Aminobutyrate aminotransferase the positions of reverse and forward primers in the sequences, ranged from 240 to 666 bp with an average of 408 bp. Most probes contained the NBS domains with DNA sequences for Kin-2, Kin-3, P-loop, and GLPL protein polypeptide sequences characteristic of RGH genes [10], [11] and [12], as confirmed by resequencing. The second achievement of this work was the identification of BAC clones that contained RGH genes or pseudogenes using BAC filter hybridizations made efficient by pooling probes. Some redundancy of positive hits occurred between assays owing to RGH clustering [15]. This result also confirmed that TIR and non-TIR type R-genes could occur on the same BAC. However, specific clusters could be composed of large numbers of NBS genes of one type. David et al.

Normal distributions were observed for flour quality parameters but non-normal distributions for dough rheological properties. Sedimentation value was strongly

correlated with the three rheological parameters, indicating that it could be used as a primary indicator for dough rheological property evaluation. The dough rheological properties of wheat genetic resources in China have greatly improved from 1986, although the rate of improvement is slowing. However, flour quality, in the form of protein content, has not markedly improved. Future studies should be focused on these ABT888 issues to meet the increasing demand for wheat quality. We thank Mrs. LIU Fang and LI Yan of our laboratory for their support in this work. This work was supported by the Science and Technology Innovation Project of CAAS for Wang Tianyu (Crop Germplasm Resources Identification and Discovery). “
“Of the three main rusts affecting wheat,

stripe rust, caused by Selleckchem Baf-A1 Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici (Pst), is the one that has proved the most difficult to manage in Australia. There are a limited number of resistance genes available in adapted varieties, and new pathotypes that overcome the most widely deployed genes have arisen at frequent intervals. Outbreaks of all three wheat rusts are highly dependent on weather conditions, with management relying on a combination of plant resistance, reducing “environmental risk” factors and the tactical application of fungicides if required. One important aspect

of environmental risk is that associated with nitrogen management. Nitrogen (N) nutrition is known to affect the level of stripe rust infection, with higher N associated with increased disease severity [1] and [2]. Different mechanisms have been suggested to be involved in this response. Some studies suggest that increased crop density and canopy Urease density associated with N fertilisation creates a more favourable microclimate for stripe rust development [2] and [3]. Other studies suggest that the effect of N on stripe rust is mediated via increased N content of the host tissue acting as a substrate for pathogen growth, rather than via changes in canopy microclimate [4] and [5]. Diseases can also affect the way in which the crop uses nitrogen [6]. In general, controlling rusts with fungicides increases the protein content of wheat grains. The mechanisms for this are uncertain, but it has been suggested that rusts have a greater proportional effect on nitrogen mobilisation into the grain than on the supply of photosynthate [6]. Adding nitrogen to a wheat crop in the presence of stripe rust could thus increase the severity of the disease, and the disease itself could then reduce the amount of nitrogen exported in the grain. Understanding the interaction of these factors is important in assessing the productivity impacts of rust management, namely, yield and quality (protein).

Eighteen-week-old male Swiss mice were supplied by the Animal House of the School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Chemistry Institute

from University of Sao Paulo. The animals were fed a standard pellet diet and water ad libitum, and before each experimental procedure, the animals were anesthetized with ketamine/xylazine solution (80 mg/kg; 8 mg/kg; i.p.). All procedures were performed according to the Brazilian Society of Science of Laboratory Animals (SBCAL), for proper care and use of experimental animals and approved by the local ethics committee (process MK-2206 order number 196). Five mice were randomly placed in an exposure box and exposed to aerosolized HQ at concentrations of 12.5, 25 or 50 ppm or vehicle (saline solution with 5% ethanol) for 1 h, once a day, for 5 days. An ultrasonic nebulizer (NS®, Sao Paulo, Brazil) was used to nebulize the solutions in the box. According to the manufacture’s information the particle size generated GDC-0941 clinical trial by the nebulizer is within the range 0.5–10 μm. Two openings at the opposite side of the chamber, relative to the introduction of solutions, allowed the air to seep out. This process was performed in an exhaust hood. It is important to emphasize that concentrations of HQ employed in the current study were lower than those

established for in vivo exposure in the literature ( NIOSH Guideline, 1988 and IPCS-INCHEM, 1994). A dose–response

effect had been previously performed and 5-days exposure was the shortest period to evoke the toxic effect (data not shown). HQ concentrations in the exposure box were determined according to NIOSH, protocol No. 5004. The induction of pulmonary inflammation was performed 1 h after the last vehicle or HQ exposure using a similar exposure box approach. LPS (0.1 mg/ml) was aerosolized for 10 min at a Farnesyltransferase rate of 1 ml/min. Three hours after LPS inhalation, the animals were anesthetized and arterial blood was collected from the abdominal aorta. The total and differential counts were performed as previously described (Macedo et al., 2006). BALF was collected from vehicle- or HQ-exposed animals to determine the number of migrated leukocytes and concentrations of cytokines as previous described by De Lima et al. (1992). MPO activity was determined in the lung tissue obtained from vehicle- or HQ-exposed animals accordingly to Bradley et al. (1982). Lung of vehicle or HQ exposed mice were surgically removed, frozen in nitrogen–hexane solution, cryosectioned (8 μm thickness) and fixed in cold acetone (10 min). Briefly, sections were incubated overnight with Superblock solution to avoid nonspecific binding.

g., Clay et al., 2005; Owsley et al., 1995). UFOV tests typically involve making judgements on a central

item whilst attempting to discriminate peripheral items, often with concurrent distractors. Older adults who, despite having intact visual fields, are poor at this test are more dangerous drivers as indexed by measures including road accidents and driver simulator performance (Clay et al., 2005). Regorafenib solubility dmso Crucially, these studies have not modulated the amount of attention required in the central task in order to examine how this impacts on deployment of attention to peripheral items. Some investigations have also reported that older participants might suffer from an AB that is longer and of greater magnitude (e.g., Georgiou-Karistianis et al., 2007; Maciokas and Crognale, 2003), but no studies have examined perception across the visual field in these paradigms. In our second experiment, we used our paradigm to probe deployment of attention over space and time within healthy ageing when participants perform a demanding task at fixation. Five patients with right hemisphere stroke participated in the study. Patients were aged from 55 to 75 (mean 66 years). All were in-patients at the Fondazione Santa Lucia Neuro-Rehabilitation Hospital in Rome, Italy. They had suffered from their stroke on average 12 weeks prior to entering the research programme. Brain lesions, imaged by CT or MRI, were

reconstructed with MRICro software (http://www.sph.sc.edu/comd/rorden/mricro.html), AZD6244 in vitro plotted with the use of a graphics tablet (WACOM Intuos A4). See Fig. 1 for lesion mapping images, which demonstrate widespread involvement including

frontal and parietal regions. Scans were unavailable for one patient (the radiology report stated that there was damage to right frontal, parietal and temporal regions affecting cortical and sub-cortical structures). None of the patients Epothilone B (EPO906, Patupilone) suffered from neglect at the time of testing according to a standard clinical examination. All patients had intact visual fields as tested by confrontation, 4/5 patients had constructional apraxia as revealed by performance on the Rey–Osterrieth complex figure and block design of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. Patients were compared with five age-matched healthy control participants. Their ages ranged from 56 to 70 (mean 65 years), all reported normal/corrected to normal vision. All participants gave written informed consent according to the Declaration of Helsinki. The study was approved by both the hospital and university research ethics committees. The experiment was programmed with Psyscope software (Cohen et al., 1993) run from a Macintosh G4 laptop computer. A small white diamond shape (1° across, see Fig. 2) was presented at fixation with either its top or bottom apex missing. During the low load condition only the diamond was presented in the centre.

The delexicalized words sounded like hummed versions of the corresponding suffixed words. Thus, if the P2 effect for high tones is due to attention exogenous to language processing, it should be present even for the delexicalized forms. The present study

also explored whether there is an N1 difference for delexicalized forms, where the absence of segmental and lexical information could make a high tone unexpected. It could be expected that, as suggested in Roll and Horne (2011), the N1 time range is more associated with exogenous attention, more specifically, detection of salient auditory features that might be relevant for further processing, giving a stronger effect for unexpected sound changes. Roll et al. (2010) did learn more not find any N1 difference for stem tones. In the semantic task, high tone-inducing suffixes yielded generally longer response times than low tone-inducing suffixes, F(1, 16)=5.62, p=0.031. However,

the suffix effect was modified by an interaction with tone, F(1, 16)=4.75, p=0.045, revealing significantly longer response times for high tone-inducing suffixes, M=767 ms, SD=40, than low tone-inducing suffixes, M=719 ms, SD=39, VE-822 solubility dmso after low tones, F(1, 16)=15.99, p=0.001, but no difference between high tone-inducing suffixes, M=756 ms, SD=40, and low-associated suffixes M=737 ms, SD=35, following high stem tones, F(1, 16)=1.44, p=0.248. For the boundary task, there was only a main difference between high tone-inducing suffixes, M=210 ms, SD=50, and low tone-inducing suffixes, M=196 ms, SD=48, F(1, 16)=5.62, p=0.031. Accuracy was high, but low tone-inducing suffixes were marginally more accurately judged, M=99.5%, SD=0.2%, than high tone-inducing suffixes, M=98.6%, SD=0.5%, F(1, 16)=3.77, p=0.070. Fig. 1 shows the ERPs at CZ for high and low stem Cell Penetrating Peptide tones (A) in the three different tasks: semantic (ST), lexical word boundary (LB), and delexicalized word boundary (DB) (B). The topographic distribution of the P2 effects in semantic (C) and lexical word boundary (D) are also seen, as well as the ERPs for low tone- and high tone-inducing suffixes following

low tone stems (E). High tones in delexicalized forms produced a negative deflection at 100–150 ms as compared to low tones, reflected in a main effect for tone, F(1, 16)=6.31, p=0.023 (N1 in Fig. 1A). There was no effect in this time window for either the semantic or lexical word boundary tasks. Visual inspection suggested a P2 onset before 200 ms. We therefore added a time window between the N1 and P2 windows, at 160–200 ms. In the semantic task, there was a tone×lat interaction, F(2, 32)=4.44, p=0.025. High tones produced increased positivity as compared to low tones in mid RoIs, F(1, 16)=5.01, p=0.040. The lexical word boundary task yielded a tone×antpost interaction, F(2, 32)=4.06, p=0.040. ERPs for high tones were more positive at central leads, F(1, 16)=4.97, p=0.041.

The murine C3H10T1/2 and

ST2 pre-osteoblast cell lines were obtained from ATCC (Manassas, VA) and cultured as described below. Recombinant human heparanase (rHPSE) and heparanase antibodies were kindly provided by Dr. Israel Vlodavsky (Technion, Haifa, Israel). Dickkopf1 (DKK1) inhibitor was purchased from Millipore (Billerica, MA); active and total β-catenin antibodies were purchased from Cell Signaling (Danvers, MA); human osteocalcin and mouse peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) antibodies were obtained from Abcam (Cambridge, MA); and mouse Runt-related transcription factor 2 (Runx2) antibody was purchased from MBL (Woods Hole, MA). Human and mouse DKK1 ELISA buy SD-208 kits were obtained from R&D Systems (Minneapolis, MN). ALP and Oil Red O staining kits and β-actin antibody were purchased from Sigma (St. Louis, MO); and the Von Kossa staining kit was from Polysciences (Warrington, PA). All animals were used in this study according to the NIH Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals and were approved under local institutional guidelines for the humane use of animals in research. SCID (CB.17 scid/scid) and

C57BL/6 mice were purchased from Harlan Laboratories, Inc. (Indianapolis, IN) and housed in individual cages (5 selleck kinase inhibitor per cage) in temperature (22 °C) and humidity (50%) controlled rooms having a 12 h light/12 h dark cycle with food and water ad libitum. All animal experiments were performed under a UAB IACUC approved protocol. The SCID-hu is a well described animal model in which human fetal long bones (Advanced Bioscience Resources, Inc., Alameda, CA) are implanted subcutaneously on each side of the dorsum of SCID mice [33], [34] and [37]. 105 CAG HPSE-low or HPSE-high cells were injected directly into the cut end of one human bone graft (primary bone) in each mouse, whereas the contralaterally implanted human bones were not injected with tumor cells

all (7 mice in each group). Eight weeks after the injection of tumor cells, the mice were euthanized. Tumor-injected human bones and non-injected contralateral human bones were collected and fixed in 10% neutral-buffered formalin and embedded in paraffin as described [36]. The paraffin-embedded bone sections were then stained with human osteocalcin antibody according to the manufacturer’s recommendations and the numbers of osteocalcin positive osteoblasts on the surface of trabecular bones were counted [25] and [33]. Twenty eight paraffin-embedded bone marrow core biopsy specimens of myeloma patients, obtained from the Department of Pathology at UAB, were stained for both heparanase and osteocalcin. The experimental procedures and protocols were approved by the UAB Institutional Review Board.

Therefore, our study provides crucial information about the possible use of KRG as a clinical candidate for the prevention and treatment of ALD. All contributing Antidiabetic Compound Library authors declare no conflicts of interest. This work was supported by a 2012 grant from the Korean Society of Ginseng, Wetzlar. “
“Panax ginseng Meyer (ginseng, Araliaceae) is a perennial herb cultivated for its highly valued root. Ginseng prefers a cool and temperate climate and is widely planted in the mountainous region of Northeast China. Its cultivation is difficult because of its long cultivation period and its demand for deep shade and nutrient-rich, slightly acidic, deep, and well-drained soils. Replantation

in old fields usually fails, and it takes up to 30 yrs for previously cultivated fields to recover. The following factors may contribute to the problem: deteriorated soil conditions [1], [2], [3], [4] and [5]; plant diseases (soil sickness) [6]; and autotoxicity [7]. This study primarily focuses on soil conditions. The Changbai Mountains are famous for ginseng production, with their fertile soils with good water permeability and aeration. People have collected wild ginseng here for 17 centuries and have been planting ginseng by simulating natural conditions since the Yuan dynasty. Today, the ginseng supply relies mainly on intensive field cultivation under artificial-shade structures. Floating plastic mulch is positioned above the ginseng bed, except

during the winter, to create shade, enhance photoselectivity, and defend against strong rain. The semi-protective cultivation mode has the potential to affect the bed soil conditions. Albic luvisol is one of the main soil types GPCR Compound Library cell line used for ginseng cultivation in the Changbai Mountains, Carnitine palmitoyltransferase II which is derived from loess and characterized by high clay and organic-matter

content. After the land was cleared, a binary mixture of the humus and albic horizons (generally 1:1) was created in an elevated bed [8]. Ginseng bed soils from albic luvisols have been shown in our research, as well as others’, to be acidic [4] and [9]. Soil pH has a large influence on ginseng growth and development. Producing American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L) at a pH of 5.5 doubled its yield when compared with a pH of 4.4 [10]. A low pH, low calcium (Ca), and high exchangeable aluminum (Al) reportedly led to the development of red skin and rusty roots in ginseng [11]. Impacts related to soil acidity, such as Al toxicity, might contribute to ginseng replant disease in albic ginseng garden soils. Systematic and comprehensive investigation is necessary to understand the development of acidity and related characteristics in ginseng planting soils. In this study, the soil conditions were investigated seasonally at a ginseng farm located in the Changbai Mountains in Northeast China. The study was carried out in a field (41°32′N, 128°09′E) on the first ginseng farm in Malugou County, Jilin province, China. It is located on the lava plateau of the Changbai Mountains.