In terms of CV risk, factor deficiency may not be protective. The problem is that we just do not know exactly what happens because the current

literature is contradictory. HIV and hepatitis C are major confounders in our patient population and they PKC412 are likely to remain with us for several years to come. Overall, there are very few studies and we lack the scientific best evidence which can help create best practice guidelines. Some immediate challenges ahead: 1  What is the optimal antiplatelet therapy (single vs. double)? While morbidity associated with changes in bone mineral density (BMD) clearly increases with age it is not a disorder restricted to the elderly patients, and osteoporosis can occur at all ages. Osteoporosis is a systemic disease characterized by low BMD and microarchitectural deterioration of bone tissue. A decrease in BMD, as evidenced by a low peak bone mass, results from excessive bone resorption once peak bone mass has been attained and decreased

bone formation during remodelling. Figure 1 shows how bone mass is attained over time in healthy men and women, with peak levels being achieved by the age of 30 years. The impact of ageing and specific events such as menopause is also highlighted. Reductions in BMD produce bone tissue which becomes increasingly fragile with an increased risk of fracture, most notably in the hip, vertebrae and wrist. There are a number of factors that contribute to low BMD/osteoporosis including non-modifiable genetic factors (race, gender) and modifiable environmental factors (exercise, smoking, alcohol, vitamin D and calcium). In addition check details 上海皓元 to these, there is a wide range of risk factors such as age, female gender, menopause, certain hormone/metabolic related disorders, steroid therapy and so forth [25–27]. With regards its prevalence: 34 million Americans have low bone mass and 10 million are estimated to have osteoporosis [25,26]. Furthermore, 75 million people in the US, Europe and Japan are affected by the disorder and one in five

men >50 years of age will experience an osteoporosis-related fracture. Osteoporosis is associated with significant morbidity and every 30 s someone in the European Union suffers an osteoporosis-related hip fracture. Prognosis after a hip fracture is poor: the mortality rate within 1 year is about 20%, 30% will have permanent disability, 40% will require assistance with walking and 80% will be unable to perform at least one independent activity of daily living [25,26]. Osteoporosis causes more disability than all cancers other than lung cancer, and the ensuing significant morbidity leads to loss of normal functioning, loss of independence, high levels of pain and impaired quality of life and overall well-being [25,26]. Peak bone mass is a primary determinant of osteoporosis risk and weight bearing exercises are crucial to help bone tissue/structure development.